The revolution in agricultural production over the past several decades has completely transformed the way we approach crop cultivation. Yet, in the shadow of this progress lies a serious problem — the legacy of pesticides that persist in soil, water and living organisms for decades. Among the various types of these chemicals, the so‑called persistent organic pollutants (POPs) certainly rank among the most hazardous.
POPs pesticides are a class of chemicals with four alarming characteristics: they are highly toxic, extremely persistent in the environment, capable of accumulating in living tissues and able to travel long distances from where they were originally applied. These are not merely abstract environmental concerns; POPs are linked to cancer, reproductive disorders and suppressed immune function in wildlife as well as in humans.
The original POPs pesticides (part of the group known as the “dirty dozen”) — aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex and toxaphene — were widely used in the mid‑20th century until their dangers became undeniable. Since then, the list has expanded to include additional substances such as lindane, endosulfan, pentachlorophenol and dicofol, now regulated under the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.
What makes these chemicals particularly insidious is their persistence. DDT residues can remain in the soil for decades. Hexachlorobenzene breaks down so slowly that it continues accumulating in food webs long after its application has ceased. Some, like mirex, have an environmental half‑life of up to 10 years.
The Stockholm Convention not only bans POPs but also requires each signatory country to develop a National Implementation Plan (NIP) that inventories these substances, assesses contamination and outlines concrete steps for their elimination and remediation. An NIP serves as a comprehensive roadmap detailing everything from historical production and use patterns to current stockpiles, contaminated sites and regulatory gaps.
For pesticides specifically, an NIP must address several key questions:
Were these substances produced domestically? In what quantities were they imported, and when? Where and in what amounts were they applied? Do stockpiles still exist? Are there contaminated sites requiring remediation? And what legal frameworks govern their control?
The answers vary widely from country to country, reflecting different agricultural practices, industrial histories, and regulatory capacities. The experiences of Georgia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Kazakhstan illustrate both the shared challenges and the varied approaches to managing this issue.
The story of POPs pesticides in Georgia centres on a single but massive problem: the Iagluja landfill. This 4‑hectare site, located on Mount Iagluja in eastern Georgia, was in operation from 1976 to 1985. During that time, 2,700 tonnes of obsolete pesticides were deposited into trenches, sarcophagi, and pits.
The scale of contamination is staggering. Current estimates suggest that the landfill contains roughly 4,000–6,000 tonnes of mixed POPs pesticides and agrochemicals, along with19,000–22,000 tonnes of lightly to moderately contaminated soil and another 8,000–8,500 tonnes of heavily contaminated material.
“Laboratory results from 71 soil samples showed that 11 contained POPs, while 47 samples contained both POPs and unidentified chemicals,” according to the inventory report. Detected substances include heptachlor, alpha‑HCH, gamma‑HCH (lindane), DDT and DDE — a true cocktail of toxic compounds.
Georgia has made progress thanks to international cooperation. Between 2012 and 2016, an EU‑funded project enabled the export of 220 tonnes from Iagluja to France and Belgium for incineration. Another 208 tonnes were removed from the Kakheti region. However, approximately 2,628 tonnes remain on site awaiting destruction.
Importantly, Georgia no longer manufactures or imports POPs pesticides. Current pesticide use has dramatically decreased — from 35 kg/hectares during Soviet agricultural practices to today’s permitted limit of just 1 kg/hectare. The country has also introduced strict regulations, and 55 substances are now banned or heavily restricted in national legislation, partly due to the Stockholm Convention.
Bosnia and Herzegovina presents a more complex regulatory landscape. The country carried out its first comprehensive inventory of pentachlorophenol and dicofol — chemicals added to the Stockholm Convention’s prohibited list in 2015 and 2019 — because these substances had not been included in the 2015 National Implementation Plan.
The good news is that neither pentachlorophenol nor dicofol has ever been manufactured in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Customs data from 2013–2023 confirm that aside from tiny quantities (0.01–0.05 kg) classified as analytical standards for laboratory use, there has been virtually no commercial import. Monitoring programmes conducted by the Food SafetyAgency in 2018, 2022 and 2023 did not detect residues of either substance in food samples.
The major challenge lies in regulatory harmonisation. “The legal framework for chemicals and waste management, pesticide production and import control remains unharmonised,” the inventory notes. Republika Srpska has developed more comprehensive chemical safety regulations, while the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Brčko District lack a complete framework for managing pesticides and hazardous waste.
The inventory identified significant regulatory gaps: dicofol is not included in wastewater regulations in Republika Srpska, despite being considered a priority substance under EU directives. Pentachlorophenol is missing from food safety regulations. Soil contamination standards for these chemicals are incomplete or entirely absent.
Perhaps the most significant concern is that, although no confirmed stockpiles exist, potential historical contamination at former wood‑preservation facilities remains an issue requiring further environmental assessment. The abandoned Impregnacija Vitez plant, which operated from 1899 and where PAH contamination has been confirmed, represents exactly the type of historical industrial site where pentachlorophenol contamination could persist unnoticed.
Of the five countries examined, Montenegro represents the simplest case. The country has never had facilities producing pesticides and has not imported POPs of pesticides since 2006.
Historical records show limited use. DDT was applied most extensively in 1956–1957 during large‑scale campaigns against the gypsy moth, when 118,030 kg of insecticide were used to treat 68,047 hectares. Other POPs substances—such as endrin, toxaphene, aldrin and dieldrin—were used locally between 1968 and 1977. However, there is no evidence that chlordane, heptachlor, mirex or hexachlorobenzene were ever used.
The last quantities of lindane‑ and endosulfan‑based products were imported in 2006 and completely distributed. After 2009, no further import permits were issued for plant‑protection products containing persistent organic pollutants. Some endosulfan‑based biocides were imported until 2013 for disinfecting stables and cellars, but that practice has also stopped.
Montenegro’s regulatory framework is robust. The Plant Protection Products Act, aligned with EU Regulation No. 1107/2009, requires annual publication of approved active substances — and since the first list in 2009, no pesticides containing persistent organic pollutants have appeared.
The good news is that monitoring works. Programmes tracking pesticide residues in food have been in place since 2009, with results submitted to the European Food Safety Authoritysince 2013. Environmental monitoring of agricultural soil began in 2012. “By 2024, no organochlorine pesticide residues had been detected in collected samples of food and feed,” the report confirms. Likewise, soil sampling has not identified any persistent organic pollutant residues at monitored sites.
North Macedonia faces perhaps the most dramatic contamination of all Balkan countries — a direct consequence of industrial lindane production from 1964 to 1977.
The Organic Chemical Industry of Skopje (OHIS) produced roughly 2,800 tonnes of lindane (gamma‑HCH) through photochemical chlorination of benzene. But for every tonne of lindane, 8–10 tonnes of inactive alpha‑HCH, beta‑HCH and delta‑HCH isomers were generated and simply dumped on site. The result: an estimated 25,000–30,000 tonnes of toxic waste were improperly disposed of at two landfills within the factory grounds.
Contamination did not remain confined to the site. “The large landfill covers 5,270 square metres and has no concrete impermeable base to protect the subsoil from leachatein filtration,” a detailed site investigation revealed. Groundwater samples from 15 monitoring wells exceeded all intervention values for HCH. Even more alarming, vegetable samples from nearby residential areas showed alpha‑HCH levels exceeding maximum residue limits in parsley and cabbage.
A second contaminated site at Pelenica‑Rupa, 10 km southeast of Skopje, presents an equally severe problem. In 1976, approximately 8,000 m³ of delta‑HCH waste was deposited not in the originally designed concrete sarcophagus, but directly into an old clay pit. Site investigations found pure HCH waste in concentrations of 220,000–330,000 mg/kg, and vertical delineation of contamination was not achieved. “The site poses a direct and unacceptable risk to human health and the environment,” the assessment concluded.
However, North Macedonia has made remarkable progress. Since 2015, under a GEF‑funded project supported by USD 3.1 million, a systematic remediation process at OHIS has been underway. As part of this effort, a legal framework was established; technical guidelines prepared, staff trained, and — most importantly — remediation began. From 2021 to the present, 1,969 tonnes of HCH waste and 587 tonnes of contaminated soil have been excavated, packaged in UN‑approved containers, and exported for destruction.
The government has also established a multi‑partner environmental fund to ensure sustainability after project financing ends. To date, approximately USD 8 million has been mobilised for ongoing remediation.
Yet the work is far from finished. An estimated 4,400 tonnes of waste remain at the smaller OHIS landfill, with cleanup expected to cost around EUR 10.5 million. The larger landfill contains roughly 53,000 tonnes of waste, with remediation costs estimated at EUR 140 million. The Pelenica‑Rupa site is expected to require between USD 1 million and 90 million, depending on the remedial strategy selected.
Kazakhstan’s POPs pesticide problem reflects the immense scale of Soviet agricultural ambitions. Unlike other countries, Kazakhstan’s contamination does not stem from domestic production — the country never manufactured POPs pesticides — but from massive imports during the Virgin Soil campaign (1954–1965) and the subsequent decades of intensive farming.
The 2022–2023 national inventory revealed the true extent of this legacy: 165 contaminated sites across 15 regions containing over 1,288 tonnes of recorded pesticides and contaminated materials. The findings are alarming: at several sites, DDT and hexachlorobenzene levels exceeded maximum allowable concentrations by more than 50,000 times.
The contamination is varied and troubling. It includes abandoned pesticide warehouses with collapsed roofs and destroyed walls; airfields once used for agricultural spraying, where pesticides were mixed and loaded; landfills containing obsolete pesticides simply covered with soil; and vast areas of contaminated land where improper storage led to widespread soil pollution.
One particularly alarming site, the former Bogorodka warehouse in the Akmola region, contains 1,631 kg of unidentified solid pesticides and 30 kg of mercury‑based pesticides. Soilsamples from this location showed contamination exceeding limits for aldrin, alpha‑HCH, beta‑HCH, DDT, delta‑HCH, dicofol, endosulfan, endrin, heptachlor epoxide, gamma‑HCH (lindane), hexachlorobenzene and methoxychlor — essentially the full spectrum of banned organochlorine pesticides.
At the Pavlodar pesticide landfill, 402.5 litres of various liquid pesticides stored in damaged containers were found. Soil analysis revealed exceedances of limits for aldrin, alpha‑ and beta‑HCH, DDT and its metabolites DDD and DDE, delta‑HCH, dicofol, dieldrin, endosulfan, endrin, gamma‑HCH, heptachlor and methoxychlor.
Equally concerned is the fact that many sites lack basic safety measures — they are unfenced and without warning signs, allowing livestock and people to move freely across contaminated areas. Inventory teams documented locations where poorly maintained or destroyed facilities further increase the risk of human and environmental exposure.
Despite this, significant challenges remain. Kazakhstan lacks adequate infrastructure for the safe handling of persistent organic pollutants — there simply are not enough facilitiescapable of processing or destroying these substances. Historical records are incomplete; much documentation was lost during administrative reforms following the collapse of theSoviet Union. Although pesticide use decreased from 0.57 kg/ha in 1987 to 0.13 kg/ha in 1997, recent years have seen renewed increases, with glyphosate‑based herbicides applied to roughly 2.6 million hectares in 2022.
Moving forward will require substantial investment. Kazakhstan has begun developing action plans with short‑term priorities (1–3 years), including securing contaminated sites with fencing, digitising stockpile data and conducting public awareness campaigns. Medium‑term objectives (4–6 years) focus on developing centralised databases and modernising disposal infrastructure. Long‑term goals (7–10 years) emphasise comprehensive site remediation and harmonisation of regulations with international standards.
The experiences of these five countries reveal both progress and persistent challenges. On the positive side, the use of POPs pesticides has been virtually eliminated across all regions. Regulatory frameworks, while imperfect, generally prohibit these substances. International cooperation has enabled the destruction of hundreds of tonnes of obsolete stockpiles.
Yet the scale of remaining work is immense. Bosnia and Herzegovina must harmonise regulations within its complex jurisdictional structure and address identified gaps in wastewater, soil and food‑safety standards. Georgia must confront the enormous remediation challenge at Iagluja, where thousands of tonnes of contaminated material await treatment. NorthMacedonia must secure funding to complete remediation at two major sites. Kazakhstan faces 165 contaminated locations spread over vast distances, requiring both immediaterisk‑reduction measures and long‑term remediation strategies.
Financial needs are equally sobering. North Macedonia requires EUR 150–240 million to fully remediate its lindane‑contaminated sites. Kazakhstan needs significant investment in waste‑disposal infrastructure and site‑security measures across 15 regions. Georgia’s Iagluja site awaits funding for the removal of remaining contaminated materials.
The recommendations across all countries are clear: strengthen monitoring programmes, particularly for legacy contamination; build laboratory capacity and state enforcement mechanisms; harmonise regulations with EU standards; develop adequate disposal infrastructure; and maintain international cooperation for stockpile destruction and site remediation.
Perhaps most importantly, these inventories demonstrate the value of transparency and systematic assessment. By openly confronting the toxic legacies of agricultural and industrial production, these countries are laying out the groundwork for effective remediation and prevention. Detailed site assessments at OHIS and Pelenica‑Rupa in North Macedonia, comprehensive monitoring programmes in Montenegro, regulatory gap analyses in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Iagluja site evaluation in Georgia and Kazakhstan’s extensive 2022–2023 inventory all represent critical steps toward environmental restoration.
POPs' pesticides that contaminated their environments decades ago will not disappear overnight. The site in Kazakhstan, where contamination levels exceed safe limits by up to 50,000 times, illustrates the magnitude of the problem. The legacy of lindane in North Macedonia — where tens of thousands of tonnes require remediation — shows the long‑term consequences of industrial chemical production.
But with sustained effort and international support, their threat can be neutralised. The work continues — one contaminated site, one regulatory gap, one monitoring programme at a time. For countries recovering from decades of chemical use, whether in Soviet agricultural campaigns or Yugoslav‑era industrial production, the path to environmental recovery is long. Yet, as demonstrated by Montenegro’s success, North Macedonia’s determined remediation efforts and Kazakhstan’s comprehensive inventories, it is achievable.
The legacy of POPs pesticides reminds us that the chemicals we use today shape the environmental challenges of tomorrow. By learning from the experiences of these five countries — their progress and their commitment to remediation — we can better understand both the costs of persistent pollution and the determined efforts required to overcome it. We at RECETOX are proud to share our expertise in these processes through ongoing international cooperation.
On 25 February 2026, the Stockholm Convention Regional Centre (SCRC) at RECETOX convened the Updated Stockholm Convention (SC) National Implementation Plan (NIP) Endorsement Meeting in Sarajevo.
