What Are PCBs?
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are synthetic organic compounds that have left an indelible mark on both environmental and public health fields. These chemicals, characterized by their biphenyl structure (two connected benzene rings), were first synthesized at the end of the 19th century, but their widespread industrial use began in the mid-20th century.
PCBs were once considered an industrial miracle due to their exceptional properties: chemical stability, thermal conductivity, non-flammability, and resistance to oxidation. These characteristics made them suitable for a wide range of applications, especially as insulating fluids in electrical equipment such as transformers and capacitors. They were also used in heat transfer systems, hydraulic fluids, and various open applications, including paints and plastics.
Despite their industrial usefulness, PCBs turned out to be among the most problematic contaminants of the modern era. As early as the 1960s, they were detected in wildlife far from the places where they were used, highlighting their ability to travel long distances in the environment. PCBs are highly persistent, accumulate in organisms, and undergo biomagnification in food chains. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified PCBs as Group 1 carcinogens, as they are associated with a range of adverse health effects, including cancer, reproductive disorders, neurotoxicity, and immune system dysfunction.
The global response to PCB contamination led to their inclusion in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which was adopted in 2001 and entered into force in 2004. According to Article 7 of the Convention, PCBs are listed in both Annex A and Annex C, obliging countries to phase out their use and ensure environmentally sound disposal. The Convention requires countries to identify, label, and remove PCB-containing equipment by 2025 and to dispose of all PCB waste by 2028.
National POPs disposal plans, which outline the basic framework for eliminating selected POPs, are the subject of international projects coordinated by RECETOX.
Main Objectives of Projects Coordinated by RECETOX
The main goal of these projects is to facilitate the implementation of the Stockholm Convention in participating countries through the development, review, and updating of National Implementation Plans (NIPs) and their submission to the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Convention. This is achieved by strengthening national technical capacities and expertise, as well as procedures for utilizing national resources and data. The aim of the NIP update project is to support each recipient country’s efforts to implement the Stockholm Convention and to enhance the protection of human health and the environment from the risks posed by improper use, handling, and release of POPs.
The National Implementation Plan (NIP) is a mandatory document under Article 7 of the Stockholm Convention, in which each country (Party to the Convention) outlines how it will fulfill its obligations to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These plans detail national regulations, decision-making processes, and measures for managing POPs throughout their life cycle and must be regularly reviewed and updated to reflect newly listed POPs under the Convention. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Stockholm Convention Secretariat provide guidance and technical assistance to help countries develop, update, and successfully complete their NIPs.
A key component of the plan is the POPs inventory, which provides a detailed overview of the production, use, import, and export of the selected chemical (POP). The inventories also include an assessment of the substance’s environmental impact and steps toward ending its production, use, or import/export. These inventories are not only a crucial part of the NIP but also play a vital role in the overall activities aimed at implementing the Stockholm Convention. Practically, they serve as an important data repository on the substance and also represent a platform for cooperation among governments, NGOs, and industry.
So, what is the current status of PCB inventories in selected project countries?
Georgia: Systematic Assessment Reveals Significant Contamination
Georgia has never produced PCBs locally, but PCB-containing equipment was widely used, especially transformers within the electrical infrastructure. A comprehensive inventory conducted according to international standards included testing of 5,000 transformers, with PCB contamination found in 288 units (5.76%). Based on this sample, Georgia estimates that nearly 1,000 contaminated transformers are present across the country, containing approximately 327 tons of PCB transformer oil.
The inventory identified transformers manufactured between 1940 and 2000 in various countries, including Armenia, the Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union, and other Eastern European states. Cleaning of PCB-contaminated transformer oils is planned for 2025, representing a key step toward fulfilling obligations under the Stockholm Convention.
North Macedonia: Model PCB Management Program
North Macedonia serves as an example of best practice in PCB management. Although the country never produced PCBs, it imported equipment from former Yugoslav manufacturers until 1986. A detailed inventory involving sampling, screening, and laboratory verification identified 1,099 tons of contaminated equipment and waste.
Remarkably, North Macedonia has made significant progress in disposal: 1,000 tons of PCB-containing equipment and waste have been decontaminated or disposed of, including 895 tons of transformers treated at a national facility and 89 tons of capacitors exported for incineration. Only 100 tons remain, mostly stored on properties of bankrupt industrial enterprises. The country has established a comprehensive legal framework, built processing capacity, and conducted extensive awareness campaigns, becoming a regional model for PCB management.
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Complex Challenges Across Jurisdictions
Bosnia and Herzegovina’s federal structure creates specific challenges in PCB management. Although PCBs were never domestically produced, equipment from regional manufacturers (Iskra, Minel, Rade Končar) was widely used. A 2024 inventory identified 643,510 kg of functional PCB-containing equipment, 54,274 kg of non-functional equipment, and 3,124 kg of PCB oil stored in barrels.
The country lacks facilities for environmentally sound PCB processing and must export all waste. Since 2006, Bosnia and Herzegovina has even imported 611 kg of PCB-containing materials despite lacking domestic processing capacity, while exporting 940 tons of PCB-containing waste and liquids. Legislative frameworks exist in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, but the Brčko District lacks specific legislation for PCB waste management, creating regulatory gaps.
Kazakhstan: Extensive Legacy Issues
Kazakhstan represents the most extensive PCB contamination among the monitored countries, with initial inventories identifying more than 50,000 pieces of PCB-containing equipment. Although the country never produced PCBs, it operated a major capacitor manufacturing plant in Ust-Kamenogorsk, which ceased operations in 1989 following the introduction of health regulations in the USSR.
The scale of contamination is significant: 114 transformers with Sovtol (pure PCB), approximately 50,000 capacitors (15,000 of which were buried at the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site), and various industrial equipment in the mining, metallurgy, and energy sectors. Kazakhstan has made notable progress in disposal, exporting 648.65 tons of PCB-containing waste to European facilities since 2007. A new facility is currently under construction to process the remaining waste, including capacitors from the former Daryal-U military base.
Montenegro: Comprehensive Project-Based Approach
Montenegro implemented an ambitious project titled “Environmentally Sound Management of PCBs,” supported by UNDP, targeting an estimated 900 tons of PCB-contaminated equipment, waste, and soil. This comprehensive approach included inventory updates, capacity building, stakeholder training, and public-private partnerships.
The project yielded significant results: 475 tons of PCB-containing waste and equipment were removed and disposed of, 80 tons of transformers were decontaminated and returned to service, and 1,050 tons of PCB-contaminated soil were remediated and exported. Through regional cooperation, particularly with North Macedonia’s processing facility, Montenegro found practical solutions while building national capacity for future PCB management.
Conclusion
Inventories in the five monitored countries reveal both persistent challenges and emerging solutions in regional PCB management. Although none of these countries commercially produced PCBs, all inherited significant contamination from equipment imported primarily from the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia during the 20th century.
Common challenges include the absence of PCB processing facilities, forcing countries to rely on costly waste exports, and the need for comprehensive legal and institutional frameworks. Regional examples, however, demonstrate successful strategies: North Macedonia’s integrated approach combining national processing capacity with robust regulation; Kazakhstan’s systematic response to widespread contamination; and Montenegro’s project-based model rooted in international cooperation.
The 2025 deadline for phasing out PCB-containing equipment and the 2028 deadline for environmentally sound waste management create urgent timelines for action. These inventories provide a necessary foundation for fulfilling Stockholm Convention obligations while contributing to the protection of human health and environmental quality. Regional cooperation, particularly through shared PCB processing facilities and knowledge exchange, proves to be a key factor in achieving cost-effective and environmentally sound PCB elimination.
Successful PCB management requires sustained political commitment, adequate financial resources, strong regulatory frameworks, and ongoing international collaboration. The experiences documented in these inventories offer valuable insights for other countries facing similar challenges in meeting their Stockholm Convention commitments.
